Cricket is a
bat-and-ball game played between two teams of 11 players on a
field, at the centre of which is a rectangular 22-yard long
pitch. One team
bats, trying to score as many
runs as possible while the other team
bowls and
fields, trying to
dismiss
the batsmen and thus limit the runs scored by the batting team. A run
is scored by the striking batsman hitting the ball with his bat, running
to the opposite end of the pitch and touching the
crease there without being dismissed. The teams switch between batting and fielding at the end of an
innings.
In professional cricket the length of a game ranges from
20 overs of six bowling deliveries per side to
Test cricket played over five days. The
Laws of Cricket are maintained by the
International Cricket Council (ICC) and the
Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) with additional Standard Playing Conditions for Test matches and One Day Internationals.
[1]
Cricket is the second most popular sport in the world behind
Association football.
[2]
Cricket was first played in southern England in the 16th century. By
the end of the 18th century, it had developed into the national sport of
England. The expansion of the British Empire led to cricket being
played overseas and by the mid-19th century the first international
matches were being held. The ICC, the game's governing body, has ten
full members.
[3] The game is played particularly in
Australasia, the
Indian subcontinent, the West Indies, Southern Africa and England.
History
Early cricket was at some time or another described as "a club
striking a ball (like) the ancient games of club-ball, stool-ball,
trap-ball, stob-ball".
[4] Cricket can definitely be traced back to Tudor times in early 16th-century England. Written evidence exists of a game known as
creag being played by
Prince Edward, the son of
Edward I (Longshanks), at Newenden, Kent in 1301
[5] and there has been speculation, but no evidence, that this was a form of cricket.
A number of other words have been suggested as sources for the term
"cricket". In the earliest definite reference to the sport in 1598,
[6] it is called
creckett. Given the strong medieval trade connections between south-east England and the
County of Flanders when the latter belonged to the
Duchy of Burgundy, the name may have been derived from the
Middle Dutch[7] krick(
-e), meaning a stick (crook); or the
Old English cricc or
cryce meaning a crutch or staff.
[8] In
Old French, the word
criquet seems to have meant a kind of club or stick.
[9] In
Samuel Johnson's
Dictionary, he derived cricket from "
cryce, Saxon, a stick".
[10] Another possible source is the Middle Dutch word
krickstoel, meaning a long low stool used for kneeling in
church and which resembled the long low
wicket with two
stumps used in early cricket.
[11] According to Heiner Gillmeister, a European language expert of
Bonn University, "cricket" derives from the Middle Dutch phrase for
hockey,
met de (krik ket)sen (i.e., "with the stick chase").
[12] Dr Gillmeister believes that not only the name but the sport itself is of Flemish origin.
[13]
The first English touring team on board ship at
Liverpool in 1859
The earliest definite reference to cricket being played in England
(and hence anywhere) is in evidence given at a 1598 court case which
mentions that "creckett" was played on common land in
Guildford,
Surrey, around 1550. The court in Guildford heard on Monday, 17 January
1597 (Julian date, equating to the year 1598 in the Gregorian calendar)
from a 59 year-old
coroner,
John Derrick,
who gave witness that when he was a scholar at the "Free School at
Guildford", fifty years earlier, "hee and diverse of his fellows did
runne and play [on the common land] at creckett and other plaies."
[14][15] It is believed that it was originally a children's game but references around 1610
[15] indicate that adults had started playing it and the earliest reference to inter-parish or
village cricket occurs soon afterwards. In 1624, a player called
Jasper Vinall was killed when he was struck on the head during a match between two parish teams in Sussex.
[16]
During the 17th century, numerous references indicate the growth of
cricket in the south-east of England. By the end of the century, it had
become an organised activity being played for high stakes and it is
believed that the first professionals appeared in the years following
the
Restoration
in 1660. A newspaper report survives of "a great cricket match" with
eleven players a side that was played for high stakes in Sussex in 1697
and this is the earliest known reference to a cricket match of such
importance.
The game underwent major development in the 18th century and became
the national sport of England. Betting played a major part in that
development with rich patrons forming their own "select XIs". Cricket
was prominent in London as early as 1707 and large crowds flocked to
matches on the
Artillery Ground in Finsbury. The
single wicket
form of the sport attracted huge crowds and wagers to match. Bowling
evolved around 1760 when bowlers began to pitch the ball instead of
rolling or skimming it towards the batsman. This caused a revolution in
bat design because, to deal with the bouncing ball, it was necessary to
introduce the modern straight bat in place of the old "hockey stick"
shape. The
Hambledon Club was founded in the 1760s and, for the next 20 years until the formation of
MCC and the opening of
Lord's Old Ground
in 1787, Hambledon was both the game's greatest club and its focal
point. MCC quickly became the sport's premier club and the custodian of
the
Laws of Cricket. New Laws introduced in the latter part of the 18th century included the three stump wicket and leg before wicket (lbw).
Don Bradman had a Test average of 99.94 and an overall first-class average of 95.14, records unmatched by any other player.
[17]
The 19th century saw
underarm bowling replaced by first
roundarm and then
overarm bowling.
Both developments were controversial. Organisation of the game at
county level led to the creation of the county clubs, starting with
Sussex CCC in 1839, which ultimately formed the official
County Championship
in 1890. Meanwhile, the British Empire had been instrumental in
spreading the game overseas and by the middle of the 19th century it had
become well established in India, North America, the Caribbean, South
Africa, Australia and New Zealand. In 1844, the
first international cricket match took place between the
United States and
Canada (although neither has ever been ranked as a Test-playing nation).
In 1859, a team of
England players went on the first overseas tour (to North America). The first Australian team to tour overseas was a team of
Aboriginal stockmen who travelled to England in 1868 to play matches against county teams.
[18] In 1862, an English team made the first tour of Australia and in 1876–77, an England team took part in the first-ever
Test match at the
Melbourne Cricket Ground against
Australia.
W.G. Grace started his long career in 1865; his career is often said to have revolutionised the sport.
[19] The rivalry between England and Australia gave birth to
The Ashes in 1882 and this has remained Test cricket's most famous contest
[citation needed]. Test cricket began to expand in 1888–89 when
South Africa played England. The last two decades before the
First World War have been called the "
Golden Age of cricket".
It is a nostalgic name prompted by the collective sense of loss
resulting from the war, but the period did produce some great players
and memorable matches, especially as organised competition at county and
Test level developed.
The inter-war years were dominated by one player: Australia's
Don Bradman,
statistically the greatest batsman of all time. It was the
determination of the England team to overcome his skill that brought
about the infamous
Bodyline series in 1932–33, particularly from the accurate short-pitched bowling of
Harold Larwood. Test cricket continued to expand during the 20th century with the addition of the
West Indies,
India, and
New Zealand before the
Second World War and then
Pakistan,
Sri Lanka, and
Bangladesh
in the post-war period. However, South Africa was banned from
international cricket from 1970 to 1992 because of its government's
apartheid policy.
Cricket entered a new era in 1963 when English counties introduced the
limited overs
variant. As it was sure to produce a result, limited overs cricket was
lucrative and the number of matches increased. The first
Limited Overs International was played in 1971. The governing
International Cricket Council (ICC) saw its potential and staged the first limited overs
Cricket World Cup in 1975. In the 21st century, a new limited overs form,
Twenty20, has made an immediate impact.
Rules and game-play
Summary
A cricket match is played between two teams of eleven players each
[20][21] on a
grassy field, typically 137–150 metres (150–160 yd) in diameter.
[22] The Laws of Cricket do not specify the size or shape of the field
[23] but it is often oval.
A cricket match is divided into periods called
innings. During an innings (
innings ends with 's' in both singular and plural form), one team
fields and the other
bats.
The two teams switch between fielding and batting after each innings.
All eleven members of the fielding team take the field, but only two
members of the batting team (two
batsmen) are on the field at any given time.
The key action takes place in the
pitch,
a rectangular strip in the centre of the field. The two batsmen face
each other at opposite ends of the pitch, each behind a line on the
pitch known as a
crease. The fielding team's eleven members stand outside the pitch, spread out across the field.
Behind each batsman is a target called a
wicket. One designated member of the fielding team, called the
bowler, is given a ball, and attempts to send (
bowl)
the ball from one end of the pitch to the wicket behind the batsman on
the other side of the pitch. The batsman tries to prevent the ball from
hitting the wicket by striking the ball with a bat. If the bowler
succeeds in hitting the wicket, or if the ball, after being struck by
the batsman, is caught by the fielding team before it touches the
ground, the batsman is
dismissed. A dismissed batsman must leave the field, to be replaced by another batsman from the batting team.
If the batsman is successful in striking the ball and the ball is not
caught before it hits the ground, the two batsmen may then try to score
points (
runs) for their team by running across the pitch,
grounding their bats behind each other's crease. Each crossing and
grounding by both batsmen is worth one run. The batsmen may attempt
multiple runs or elect not to run at all. By attempting runs, the
batsmen risk dismissal, which can happen if the fielding team retrieves
the ball and hits a wicket with the ball before either batsman reaches
the opposite crease.
If the batsman hits the bowled ball over the field boundary without
the ball touching the field, the batting team scores six runs and may
not attempt more. If the ball touches the ground and then reaches the
boundary, the batting team scores four runs and may not attempt more.
When the batsmen have finished attempting their runs, the ball is
returned to the bowler to be bowled again. The bowler continues to bowl
toward the same wicket, regardless of any switch of the batsmen's
positions.
[24]
After a bowler has bowled six times (an
over), another member
of the fielding team is designated as the new bowler. The new bowler
bowls to the opposite wicket, and play continues. Fielding team members
may bowl multiple times during an innings, but may not bowl two overs in
succession.
The innings is complete when 10 of the 11 members of the batting team
have been dismissed, one always remaining "not out", or when a set
number of overs has been played. The number of innings and the number of
overs per innings vary depending on the match.
Objectives
The objective of each team is to score more
runs than the other team and to completely
dismiss
the other team. In limited overs cricket, winning the game is achieved
by scoring the most runs within the overs allowed, even if the
opposition has not been completely dismissed. In
Test cricket,
it is necessary to score the most runs and dismiss the opposition twice
in order to win the match, which would otherwise be drawn.
Pitch, wickets and creases
At either end of the pitch, 22 yards (20 m) apart, are placed the
wickets. These serve as a target for the
bowling (
aka fielding) side and are defended by the
batting side which seeks to accumulate runs. The
pitch is 22 yards (20 m) or one
chain[25]
in length between the wickets and is 10 feet (3.0 m) wide. It is a flat
surface and has very short grass that tends to be worn away as the game
progresses. The "condition" of the pitch has a significant bearing on
the match and team tactics are always determined with the state of the
pitch, both current and anticipated, as a deciding factor.
Each
wicket consists of three wooden
stumps placed in a straight line and surmounted by two wooden crosspieces called
bails;
the total height of the wicket including bails is 28.5 inches (720 mm)
and the combined width of the three stumps is 9 inches (230 mm).
Aerial view of the
MCG displaying the stadium, ground and pitch
Four lines, known as creases, are painted onto the pitch around the
wicket areas to define the batsman's "safe territory" and to determine
the limit of the bowler's approach. These are called the "popping" (or
batting) crease, the bowling crease and two "return" creases.
A
wicket consists of three
stumps that are hammered into the ground, and topped with two
bails.
The stumps are placed in line on the bowling creases and so these
must be 22 yards (20 m) apart. A bowling crease is 8 feet 8 inches
(2.64 m) long with the middle stump placed dead centre. The popping
crease has the same length, is parallel to the bowling crease and is 4
feet (1.2 m) in front of the wicket. The return creases are
perpendicular to the other two; they are adjoined to the ends of the
popping crease and are drawn through the ends of the bowling crease to a
length of at least 8 feet (2.4 m).
When bowling the ball, the bowler's back foot in his "delivery
stride" must land within the two return creases while his front foot
must land on or behind the popping crease. If the bowler breaks this
rule, the umpire calls "No ball".
The importance of the popping crease to the batsman is that it marks
the limit of his safe territory for he can be stumped or run out (see
Dismissals below) if the wicket is broken while he is "out of his
ground".
Bat and ball
The essence of the sport is that a bowler delivers the ball from his
end of the pitch towards the batsman who, armed with a bat is "on
strike" at the other end.
The
bat is made of wood (usually
White Willow)
and has the shape of a blade topped by a cylindrical handle. The blade
must not be more than 4.25 inches (108 mm) wide and the total length of
the bat not more than 38 inches (970 mm).
The
ball is a hard leather-seamed
spheroid
with a circumference of 9 inches (230 mm). The hardness of the ball,
which can be delivered at speeds of more than 90 miles per hour
(140 km/h), is a matter for concern and batsmen wear protective clothing
including
pads (designed to protect the knees and shins),
batting gloves for the hands, a
helmet for the head and a
box inside the trousers (to protect the
crotch
area). Some batsmen wear additional padding inside their shirts and
trousers such as thigh pads, arm pads, rib protectors and shoulder pads.
Umpires and scorers
The game on the field is regulated by two
umpires,
one of whom stands behind the wicket at the bowler's end, the other in a
position called "square leg", a position 15–20 metres to the side of
the "on strike" batsman. When the bowler delivers the ball, the umpire
at the wicket is between the bowler and the non-striker. The umpires
confer if there is doubt about playing conditions and can postpone the
match by taking the players off the field if necessary, for example rain
or deterioration of the light.
Off the field and in televised matches, there is often a
third umpire
who can make decisions on certain incidents with the aid of video
evidence. The third umpire is mandatory under the playing conditions for
Test matches and limited overs internationals played between two ICC
full members. These matches also have a
match referee whose job is to ensure that play is within the
Laws of cricket and the spirit of the game.
Off the field, the match details including runs and dismissals are recorded by two official
scorers,
one representing each team. The scorers are directed by the hand
signals of an umpire. For example, the umpire raises a forefinger to
signal that the batsman is out (has been dismissed); he raises both arms
above his head if the batsman has hit the ball for six runs. The
scorers are required by the Laws of cricket to record all runs scored,
wickets taken and overs bowled. In practice, they accumulate much
additional data such as bowling analyses and run rates.
Innings
The innings (ending with 's' in both singular and plural form) is the
term used for the collective performance of the batting side.
[26]
In theory, all eleven members of the batting side take a turn to bat
but, for various reasons, an innings can end before they all do so.
Depending on the type of match being played, each team has one or two
innings apiece. The term "innings" is also sometimes used to describe
an individual batsman's contribution ("he played a fine innings").
The main aim of the bowler, supported by his fielders, is to dismiss
the batsman. A batsman when dismissed is said to be "out" and that means
he must leave the field of play and be replaced by the next batsman on
his team. When ten batsmen have been dismissed (i.e., are out), then the
whole team is dismissed and the innings is over. The last batsman, the
one who has not been dismissed, is not allowed to continue alone as
there must always be two batsmen "in". This batsman is termed "not out".
An innings can end early for three reasons: because the batting
side's captain has chosen to "declare" the innings closed (which is a
tactical decision), or because the batting side has achieved its target
and won the game, or because the game has ended prematurely due to bad
weather or running out of time. In each of these cases the team's
innings ends with two "not out" batsmen, unless the innings is declared
closed at the fall of a wicket and the next batsman has not joined in
the play.
In limited overs cricket, there might be two batsmen still "not out" when the last of the allotted overs has been bowled.
Overs
Main article:
Over (cricket)
The bowler bowls the ball in sets of six deliveries (or "balls") and each set of six balls is called an
over.
This name came about because the umpire calls "Over!" when six balls
have been bowled. At this point, another bowler is deployed at the other
end, and the fielding side changes ends while the batsmen do not. A
bowler cannot bowl two successive overs, although a bowler can bowl
unchanged at the same end for several overs. The batsmen do not change
ends and so the one who was non-striker is now the striker and
vice-versa. The umpires also change positions so that the one who was at
square leg now stands behind the wicket at the non-striker's end and
vice-versa.
Team structure
A team consists of eleven players. Depending on his or her primary skills, a player may be classified as a specialist
batsman or
bowler.
A well-balanced team usually has five or six specialist batsmen and
four or five specialist bowlers. Teams nearly always include a
specialist
wicket-keeper because of the importance of this fielding position. Each team is headed by a
captain
who is responsible for making tactical decisions such as determining
the batting order, the placement of fielders and the rotation of
bowlers.
A player who excels in both batting and bowling is known as an
all-rounder.
One who excels as a batsman and wicket-keeper is known as a
"wicket-keeper/batsman", sometimes regarded as a type of all-rounder.
True all-rounders are rare as most players focus on either batting or
bowling skills.
Bowling
The bowler reaches his delivery stride by means of a "run-up",
although some bowlers with a very slow delivery take no more than a
couple of steps before bowling. A fast bowler needs momentum and takes
quite a long run-up, running very fast as he does so.
The fastest bowlers can deliver the ball at a speed of over 90 miles
per hour (140 km/h) and they sometimes rely on sheer speed to try and
defeat the batsman, who is forced to react very quickly. Other fast
bowlers rely on a mixture of speed and guile. Some fast bowlers make use
of the seam of the ball so that it "curves" or "swings" in flight. This
type of delivery can deceive a batsman into mistiming his shot so that
the ball touches the edge of the bat and can then be "caught behind" by
the wicketkeeper or a slip fielder.
At the other end of the bowling scale is the "spinner" who bowls at a
relatively slow pace and relies entirely on guile to deceive the
batsman. A spinner will often "buy his wicket" by "tossing one up" (in a
slower, higher
parabolic
path) to lure the batsman into making a poor shot. The batsman has to
be very wary of such deliveries as they are often "flighted" or spun so
that the ball will not behave quite as he expects and he could be
"trapped" into getting himself out.
In between the pacemen and the spinners are the "medium pacers" who
rely on persistent accuracy to try and contain the rate of scoring and
wear down the batsman's concentration.
All bowlers are classified according to their looks or style. The
classifications,
as with much cricket terminology, can be very confusing. Hence, a
bowler could be classified as LF, meaning he is a left arm fast bowler;
or as LBG, meaning he is a right arm spin bowler who bowls deliveries
that are called a "
leg break" and a "
Googly".
During the bowling action the elbow may be held at any angle and may
bend further, but may not straighten out. If the elbow straightens
illegally then the square-leg umpire may call
no-ball:
this is known as "throwing" or "chucking", and can be difficult to
detect. The current laws allow a bowler to straighten his arm 15 degrees
or less.
Fielding
All eleven players on the fielding side take the field together. One of them is the
wicket-keeper aka
"keeper" who operates behind the wicket being defended by the batsman
on strike. Wicket-keeping is normally a specialist occupation and his
primary job is to gather deliveries that the batsman does not hit, so
that the batsmen cannot run byes. He wears special gloves (he is the
only fielder allowed to do so), a box over the groin, and pads to cover
his lower legs. Owing to his position directly behind the striker, the
wicket-keeper has a good chance of getting a batsman out caught off a
fine
edge from the bat. He is the only player who can get a batsman out
stumped.
Apart from the one currently bowling, the other nine fielders are tactically deployed by the team captain in
chosen positions
around the field. These positions are not fixed but they are known by
specific and sometimes colourful names such as "slip", "third man",
"silly mid on" and "long leg". There are always many unprotected areas.
The captain is the most important member of the fielding side as he
determines all the tactics including who should bowl (and how); and he
is responsible for "setting the field", though usually in consultation
with the bowler.
In all forms of cricket, if a fielder gets injured or becomes ill during a match, a
substitute
is allowed to field instead of him. The substitute cannot bowl, act as a
captain or keep wicket. The substitute leaves the field when the
injured player is fit to return.
Batting
English cricketer
W.G. Grace
"taking guard" in 1883. His pads and bat are very similar to those used
today. The gloves have evolved somewhat. Many modern players utilise
more defensive equipment than was available to Grace, notably helmets
and arm guards.
At any one time, there are two batsmen in the playing area. One takes
station at the striker's end to defend the wicket as above and to score
runs if possible. His partner, the non-striker, is at the end where the
bowler is operating.
Batsmen come in to bat in a
batting order,
decided by the team captain. The first two batsmen – the "openers" –
usually face the hostile bowling from fresh fast bowlers with a new
ball. The top batting positions are usually given to the most competent
batsmen in the team, and the non-batsmen typically bat last. The
pre-announced batting order is not mandatory and when a wicket falls any
player who has not yet batted may be sent in next.
If a batsman "retires" (usually due to injury) and cannot return, he
is actually "not out" and his retirement does not count as a dismissal,
though in effect he has been dismissed because his innings is over.
Substitute batsmen are not allowed.
A skilled batsman can use a wide array of "shots" or "strokes" in
both defensive and attacking mode. The idea is to hit the ball to best
effect with the flat surface of the bat's blade. If the ball touches the
side of the bat it is called an "
edge".
Batsmen do not always seek to hit the ball as hard as possible, and a
good player can score runs just by making a deft stroke with a turn of
the wrists or by simply "blocking" the ball but directing it away from
fielders so that he has time to take a run.
There is a wide variety of shots played in cricket. The batsman's
repertoire includes strokes named according to the style of swing and
the direction aimed: e.g., "
cut", "drive", "hook", "pull".
Note that a batsman does not have to play a shot and can "leave" the
ball to go through to the wicketkeeper, providing he thinks it will not
hit his wicket. Equally, he does not have to attempt a run when he hits
the ball with his bat. He can deliberately use his leg to block the ball
and thereby "pad it away" but this is risky because of the
leg before wicket rule.
In the event of an injured batsman being fit to bat but not to run,
the umpires and the fielding captain may allow another member of the
batting side to be a
runner.
The runner's only task is to run between the wickets instead of the
injured batsman. The runner is required to wear and carry exactly the
same equipment as the incapacitated batsman. It is possible for both
batsmen to have runners.
Runs
Main article:
Run (cricket)
The directions in which a
right-handed batsman intends to send the ball when playing various cricketing shots. The diagram for a
left-handed batsman is a
mirror image of this one.
The primary concern of the batsman on strike (i.e., the "striker") is
to prevent the ball hitting the wicket and secondarily to score
runs
by hitting the ball with his bat so that he and his partner have time
to run from one end of the pitch to the other before the fielding side
can return the ball. To register a run, both runners must touch the
ground behind the crease with either their bats or their bodies (the
batsmen carry their bats as they run). Each completed run increments the
score.
More than one run can be scored from a single hit; but, while hits
worth one to three runs are common, the size of the field is such that
it is usually difficult to run four or more. To compensate for this,
hits that reach the boundary of the field are automatically awarded four
runs if the ball touches the ground
en route to the boundary or
six runs if the ball clears the boundary on the full. The batsmen do not
need to run if the ball reaches or crosses the boundary.
West Indian
Brian Lara holds the record for highest score in both Tests and first-class cricket.
Hits for five are unusual and generally rely on the help of
"overthrows" by a fielder returning the ball. If an odd number of runs
is scored by the striker, the two batsmen have changed ends, and the one
who was non-striker is now the striker. Only the striker can score
individual runs, but all runs are added to the team's total.
The decision to attempt a run is ideally made by the batsman who has
the better view of the ball's progress, and this is communicated by
calling: "yes", "no" and "wait" are often heard.
Running is a calculated risk because if a fielder breaks the wicket
with the ball while the nearest batsman is out of his ground (i.e., he
does not have part of his body or bat in contact with the ground behind
the popping crease), the batsman is
run out.
A team's score is reported in terms of the number of runs scored and
the number of batsmen that have been dismissed. For example, if five
batsmen are out and the team has scored 224 runs, they are said to have
scored 224 for the loss of 5 wickets (commonly shortened to "224 for
five" and written 224/5 or, in Australia, "five for 224" and 5/224).
Additional runs can be gained by the batting team as
extras (called "sundries" in Australia) due to errors made by the fielding side. This is achieved in four ways:
- No ball: a penalty of one extra that is conceded by the bowler if he breaks the rules of bowling either by (a) using an inappropriate arm action;
(b) overstepping the popping crease; (c) having a foot outside the
return crease. In addition, the bowler has to re-bowl the ball. In
limited overs matches, a no ball is called if the bowling team's field
setting fails to comply with the restrictions. In shorter formats of the
game (20–20, ODI) the free hit rule has been introduced. The ball
following a front foot no-ball will be a free-hit for the batsman,
whereby he is safe from losing his wicket except for being run-out.
- Wide: a penalty of one extra that is conceded by the bowler
if he bowls so that the ball is out of the batsman's reach; as with a no
ball, a wide must be re-bowled.
- Bye: extra(s) awarded if the batsman misses the ball and it
goes past the wicketkeeper to give the batsmen time to run in the
conventional way (note that one mark of a good wicketkeeper is one who
restricts the tally of byes to a minimum).
- Leg bye: extra(s) awarded if the ball hits the batsman's
body, but not his bat, while attempting a legitimate shot, and it goes
away from the fielders to give the batsmen time to run in the
conventional way.
When the bowler has bowled a no ball or a wide, his team incurs an
additional penalty because that ball (i.e., delivery) has to be bowled
again and hence the batting side has the opportunity to score more runs
from this extra ball. The batsmen have to run (i.e., unless the ball
goes to the boundary for four) to claim byes and leg byes but these only
count towards the team total, not to the striker's individual total for
which runs must be scored off the bat.
Dismissals (outs)
There are ten ways in which a batsman can be dismissed; five
relatively common and five extremely rare. The common forms of dismissal
are "bowled", "caught", "leg before wicket" (lbw), "run out", and
"stumped". Less common methods are are "hit wicket", "hit the ball
twice", "obstructed the field", "handled the ball" and "timed out" -
these are almost unknown in the professional game.
Before the umpire will award a dismissal and declare the batsman to
be out, a member of the fielding side (generally the bowler) must
"appeal". This is invariably done by asking (or shouting) "how's that?" -
normally reduced to
howzat? If the umpire agrees with the
appeal, he will raise a forefinger and say "Out!". Otherwise he will
shake his head and say "Not out". Appeals are particularly loud when the
circumstances of the claimed dismissal are unclear, as is always the
case with lbw and often with run outs and stumpings.
- Bowled:
the bowler has hit the wicket with the delivery and the wicket has
"broken" with at least one bail being dislodged (note that if the ball
hits the wicket without dislodging a bail it is not out).[27]
- Caught:
the batsman has hit the ball with his bat, or with his hand which was
holding the bat, and the ball has been caught before it has touched the
ground by a member of the fielding side.[28]
- Leg before wicket (lbw):
the ball has hit the batsman's body (including his clothing, pads etc.
but not the bat, or a hand holding the bat) when it would have gone on
to hit the stumps. This rule exists mainly to prevent the batsman from
guarding his wicket with his legs instead of the bat. To be given out
lbw, the ball must not bounce outside leg stump or, if the batsman made a
genuine attempt to play the ball, outside off stump.[29]
- Run out:
a member of the fielding side has broken or "put down" the wicket with
the ball while the nearest batsman was out of his ground; this usually
occurs by means of an accurate throw to the wicket while the batsmen are
attempting a run, although a batsman can be given out Run out even when
he is not attempting a run; he merely needs to be out of his ground.[30]
- Stumped
is similar except that it is done by the wicketkeeper after the batsman
has missed the bowled ball and has stepped out of his ground, and is
not attempting a run.[31]
- Hit wicket:
a batsman is out hit wicket if he dislodges one or both bails with his
bat, person, clothing or equipment in the act of receiving a ball, or in
setting off for a run having just received a ball.[32]
- Hit the ball twice
is very unusual and was introduced as a safety measure to counter
dangerous play and protect the fielders. The batsman may legally play
the ball a second time only to stop the ball hitting the wicket after he
has already played it.[33]
- Obstructing the field: another unusual dismissal which tends to involve a batsman deliberately getting in the way of a fielder.[34]
- Handled the ball: a batsman must not deliberately
touch the ball with his hand, for example to protect his wicket. Note
that the batsman's hand or glove counts as part of the bat while the
hand is holding the bat, so batsmen are frequently caught off their gloves (i.e. the ball hits, and is deflected by, the glove and can then be caught).[35]
- Timed out usually means that the next batsman did not arrive at the wicket within three minutes of the previous one being dismissed.[36]
In the vast majority of cases, it is the striker who is out when a
dismissal occurs. If the non-striker is dismissed it is usually by being
run out, but he could also be dismissed for obstructing the field,
handling the ball or being timed out.
A batsman may leave the field without being dismissed. If injured or
taken ill the batsman may temporarily retire, and be replaced by the
next batsman. This is recorded as
retired hurt or
retired ill.
The retiring batsman is not out, and may resume the innings later. An
unimpaired batsman may retire, and this is treated as being dismissed
retired out; no player is credited with the dismissal. Batsmen cannot be out
bowled,
caught,
leg before wicket,
stumped or
hit wicket off a
no ball. They cannot be out
bowled,
caught,
leg before wicket, or
hit the ball twice off a
wide. Some of these modes of dismissal can occur without the bowler bowling a delivery. The batsman who is not on strike may be
run out by the bowler if he leaves his crease before the bowler bowls, and a batsman can be out
obstructing the field or
retired out at any time.
Timed out
is, by its nature, a dismissal without a delivery. With all other modes
of dismissal, only one batsman can be dismissed per ball bowled.
Innings closed
An innings is closed when:
- Ten of the eleven batsmen are out (have been dismissed); in this case, the team is said to be "all out"
- The team has only one batsman left who can bat, one or more of the
remaining players being unavailable owing to injury, illness or absence;
again, the team is said to be "all out"
- The team batting last reaches the score required to win the match
- The predetermined number of overs has been bowled (in a one-day match only, commonly 50 overs; or 20 in Twenty20)
- A captain declares his team's innings closed while at least two of his batsmen are not out (this does not apply in one-day limited over matches)
Results
If the team that bats last is all out having scored fewer runs than their opponents, the team is said to have "lost by
n runs" (where
n
is the difference between the number of runs scored by the teams). If
the team that bats last scores enough runs to win, it is said to have
"won by
n wickets", where
n is the number of wickets left
to fall. For instance a team that passes its opponents' score having
only lost six wickets would have won "by four wickets".
In a two-innings-a-side match, one team's combined first and second
innings total may be less than the other side's first innings total. The
team with the greater score is then said to have
won by an innings and n
runs, and does not need to bat again:
n is the difference between the two teams' aggregate scores.
If the team batting last is all out, and both sides have scored the same number of runs, then the match is a
tie;
this result is quite rare in matches of two innings a side. In the
traditional form of the game, if the time allotted for the match expires
before either side can win, then the game is declared a
draw.
If the match has only a single innings per side, then a maximum
number of deliveries for each innings is often imposed. Such a match is
called a "limited overs" or "one-day" match, and the side scoring more
runs wins regardless of the number of wickets lost, so that a draw
cannot occur. If this kind of match is temporarily interrupted by bad
weather, then a complex mathematical formula, known as the
Duckworth-Lewis method
after its developers, is often used to recalculate a new target score. A
one-day match can also be declared a "no-result" if fewer than a
previously agreed number of overs have been bowled by either team, in
circumstances that make normal resumption of play impossible; for
example, wet weather.
Distinctive elements
Individual focus
For a team sport, cricket places individual players under unusual
scrutiny and pressure. Bowler, Batsman, and fielder all act essentially
independent of each other. While team managements can signal bowler or
batsman to pursue certain tactics, the execution of the play itself is a
series of solitary acts. Cricket is more similar to
baseball
than many other team sports in this regard: while the individual focus
in cricket is slightly mitigated by the importance of the
batting partnership and the practicalities of running, it is enhanced by the fact that a batsman may occupy the
wicket for a long time.
Spirit of the Game
Cricket is a unique game where in addition to the laws, the players have to abide by the "Spirit of the Game".
[37]
The standard of sportsmanship has historically been considered so high
that the phrase "it's just not cricket" was coined in the 19th Century
to describe unfair or underhanded behaviour in any walk of life. In the
last few decades though, cricket has become increasingly fast-paced and
competitive, increasing the use of appealing and
sledging,
although players are still expected to abide by the umpires' rulings
without argument, and for the most part they do. Even in the modern game
fielders are known to signal to the umpire that a boundary was hit,
despite what could have been considered a spectacular save (though they
might be found out by the TV replays anyway). In addition to this, some
cricket batsmen, like
Sachin Tendulkar and
Adam Gilchrist
have been known to "walk" when they think they are out even if the
umpire does not declare them out. This is a high level of sportsmanship,
as a batsman can easily take advantage of incorrect umpiring decisions.
Influence of weather
Cricket is a sport played predominantly in the drier periods of the
year. But, even so, the weather is a major factor in all cricket
matches.
A scheduled game of cricket cannot be played in wet weather. Dampness
affects the bounce of the ball on the wicket and is a risk to all
players involved in the game. Many grounds have facilities to cover the
cricket pitch (or the wicket). Covers can be in the form of sheets being
laid over the wicket to elevated covers on wheels (using the same
concept as an umbrella) to even hover covers which form an airtight seal
around the wicket. However, most grounds do not have the facilities to
cover the outfield. This means that in the event of heavy bouts of bad
weather, games may be cancelled, abandoned or suspended due to an unsafe
outfield.
Another factor in cricket is the amount of light available. At
grounds without floodlights (or in game formats which disallow the use
of floodlights), umpires can stop play in the event of bad light as it
becomes too difficult for the batsmen to be able to see the ball coming
at them, (and in extreme cases, members of the fielding team).
On the other hand, in instances of good light, batsmen can utilize
sight-screens which enable batsmen to have a white background against
which they can pick out the red ball (or black background for white
ball) with greater ease.
The umpires always have the final decision on weather related issues.
Uniqueness of each field
Unlike those of most sports, cricket playing fields can vary
significantly in size and shape. While the dimensions of the pitch and
infield are specifically regulated, the Laws of Cricket do not specify
the size or shape of the field.
[23] The field
boundaries
are sometimes painted and sometimes marked by a rope. Pitch and
outfield variations can have a significant effect on how balls behave
and are fielded as well as on batting. Pitches vary in consistency, and
thus in the amount of bounce, spin, and seam movement available to the
bowler. Hard pitches are usually good to bat on because of high but even
bounce. Dry pitches tend to deteriorate for batting as cracks often
appear, and when this happens to the pitch, spinners can play a major
role. Damp pitches, or pitches covered in grass (termed "green"
pitches), allow good fast bowlers to extract extra bounce. Such pitches
tend to offer help to fast bowlers throughout the match, but become
better for batting as the game goes on. While players of other outdoor
sports deal with similar variations of field surface and stadium
covering, the size and shape of their fields are much more standardized.
Other local factors, such as altitude and climate, can also
significantly affect play. These physical variations create a
distinctive set of playing conditions at each ground. A given ground may
acquire a reputation as batsman friendly or bowler friendly if one or
the other discipline notably benefits from its unique mix of elements.
The absence of a standardized field affects not only how particular
games play out, but the nature of team makeup and players' statistical
records.
Types of matches
Cricket is a multi-faceted sport which, in very broad terms, can be divided into
major cricket
and minor cricket based on playing standards. A more pertinent
division, particularly in terms of major cricket, is between matches in
which the teams have two innings apiece and those in which they have a
single innings each. The former, known as
first-class cricket, has a duration of three to five days (there have been examples of "timeless" matches too); the latter, known as
limited overs cricket
because each team bowls a limit of typically 50 or 20 overs, has a
planned duration of one day only (a match can be extended if necessary
due to bad weather, etc.).
Typically, two-innings matches have at least six hours of
playing time
each day. Limited overs matches often last six hours or more. There are
usually formal intervals on each day for lunch and tea with brief
informal breaks for drinks. There is also a short interval between
innings. Historically, a form of cricket known as
single wicket
had been extremely successful and many of these contests in the 18th
and 19th centuries qualify as major cricket matches. In this form,
although each team may have from one to six players, there is only one
batsman at a time and he must face every delivery bowled while his
innings lasts. Single wicket has rarely been played since limited overs
cricket began.
Test cricket
Main article:
Test cricket
is the highest standard of first-class cricket. A Test match is an
international fixture between teams representing those countries that
are Full Members of the ICC.
Although the term "Test match" was not coined until much later, Test cricket is deemed to have begun with two matches between
Australia and
England in the
1876–77 Australian season. Subsequently, eight other national teams have achieved Test status:
South Africa (1889),
West Indies (1928),
New Zealand (1929),
India (1932),
Pakistan (1952),
Sri Lanka (1982),
Zimbabwe (1992) and
Bangladesh (2000). Zimbabwe suspended its Test status in 2006 due to its inability to compete against other Test teams,
[38] and returned in 2011.
[39]
Welsh players are eligible to play for England, which is in effect an
England and Wales team. The West Indies team comprises players from
numerous states in the Caribbean, notably
Barbados,
Guyana,
Jamaica,
Trinidad & Tobago, the
Leeward Islands and the
Windward Islands.
Test matches between two teams are usually played in a group of
matches called a "series". Matches last up to five days and a series
normally consists of three to five matches. Test matches that are not
finished within the allotted time are drawn. In the case of
Test and
first-class cricket:
the possibility of a draw often encourages a team that is batting last
and well behind to bat defensively, giving up any faint chance at a win
to avoid a loss.
[40]
Since 1882, most Test series between England and Australia have been played for a trophy known as
The Ashes. Some other bilateral series have individual trophies too: for example, the
Wisden Trophy is contested by England and West Indies; the
Frank Worrell Trophy by Australia and West Indies and the
Border-Gavaskar Trophy between India and Australia.
Limited overs
An
ODI match between India and Australia in January 2004. The men wearing black trousers are the
umpires. Teams in limited overs games, such as ODIs and T20s, wear multi-coloured uniforms and use white
cricket balls.
Standard
limited overs cricket
was introduced in England in the 1963 season in the form of a knockout
cup contested by the first-class county clubs. In 1969, a national
league competition was established. The concept was gradually introduced
to the other major cricket countries and the first limited overs
international was played in 1971. In 1975, the first
Cricket World Cup
took place in England. Limited overs cricket has seen various
innovations including the use of multi-coloured kit and floodlit matches
using a white ball.
A "one day match", named so because each match is scheduled for
completion in a single day, is the common form of limited overs cricket
played on an international level. In practice, matches sometimes
continue on a second day if they have been interrupted or postponed by
bad weather. The main objective of a limited overs match is to produce a
definite result and so a conventional draw is not possible, but matches
can be undecided if the scores are tied or if bad weather prevents a
result. Each team plays one innings only and faces a limited number of
overs, usually a maximum of 50. The
Cricket World Cup is held in one day format and the
last World Cup in 2011 was won by the co-hosts, India. The
next World Cup will hosted by
Australia and
New Zealand in 2015.
Twenty20
is a new variant of limited overs itself with the purpose being to
complete the match within about three hours, usually in an evening
session. The original idea, when the concept was introduced in England
in 2003, was to provide workers with an evening entertainment. It was
commercially successful and has been adopted internationally. The
inaugural Twenty20 World Championship was held in 2007 and won by India.
2009's Twenty20 World Championship
was staged in England and won by Pakistan. The next Twenty20 World
Championship will be held in the West Indies. After the inaugural
ICC World Twenty20 many domestic Twenty20 leagues were born. First of them was
Indian Cricket League which is a rebel league since it is unauthorized by
BCCI and led to form an official league called the
Indian Premier League. Both these leagues are cash rich and attracted players and audience around the globe. Recently
Twenty20 Champions League was formed as a tournament for domestic clubs of various countries.
National championships
First-class cricket
includes Test cricket but the term is generally used to refer to the
highest level of domestic cricket in those countries with full ICC
membership, although there are exceptions to this. First-class cricket
in England is played for the most part by the 18 county clubs which
contest the
County Championship. The concept of a
champion county
has existed since the 18th century but the official competition was not
established until 1890. The most successful club has been
Yorkshire County Cricket Club with 30 official titles.
Australia established its national first-class championship in 1892–93 when the
Sheffield Shield was introduced. In Australia, the first-class teams represent the various states.
New South Wales has won the maximum number of titles with 45 to 2008.
National championship trophies to be established elsewhere included the
Ranji Trophy (India),
Plunket Shield (New Zealand),
Currie Cup (South Africa) and
Shell Shield (West Indies). Some of these competitions have been updated and renamed in recent years.
Domestic limited overs competitions began with England's
Gillette Cup
knockout in 1963. Countries usually stage seasonal limited overs
competitions in both knockout and league format. In recent years,
national Twenty20 competitions have been introduced, usually in knockout
form though some incorporate mini-leagues.
Other types of matches
There are numerous variations of the sport played throughout the world that include
indoor cricket,
French cricket,
beach cricket,
Kwik cricket
and all sorts of card games and board games that have been inspired by
cricket. In these variants, the rules are often changed to make the game
playable with limited resources or to render it more convenient and
enjoyable for the participants.
Indoor cricket is played in a netted, indoor arena, and is quite formal but many of the outdoor variants are very informal.
Families and teenagers play
backyard cricket
in suburban yards or driveways, and the cities of India and Pakistan
play host to countless games of "Gully Cricket" or "tapeball" in their
long narrow streets. Sometimes the rules are improvised: e.g. it may be
agreed that fielders can catch the ball with one hand after one bounce
and claim a wicket; or if only a few people are available then everyone
may field while the players take it in turns to bat and bowl. Tennis
balls and homemade bats are often used, and a variety of objects may
serve as wickets: for example, the batter's legs as in
French cricket, which did not in fact originate in France, and is usually played by small children.
In
Kwik cricket,
the bowler does not have to wait for the batsman to be ready before a
delivery, leading to a faster, more exhausting game designed to appeal
to children, which is often used PE lessons at English schools. Another
modification to increase the pace of the game is the "Tip and Run",
"Tipity" Run, "Tipsy Run" or "Tippy-Go" rule, in which the batter must
run when the ball touches the bat, even if it the contact is
unintentional or minor. This rule, seen only in impromptu games, speeds
the match up by removing the batsman's right to block the ball.
In Samoa a form of cricket called
Kilikiti is played in which
hockey stick-shaped
bats are used. In original English cricket, the hockey stick shape was
replaced by the modern straight bat in the 1760s after bowlers began to
pitch the ball instead of rolling or skimming it. In
Estonia, teams gather over the winter for the annual
Ice Cricket
tournament. The game juxtaposes the normal summer pursuit with harsh,
wintry conditions. Rules are otherwise similar to those for the
six-a-side game.
In addition, there is also
Tape ball and
Tennis ball cricket. Both variations use a tennis ball instead of a regular cricket ball to play. In
Tape ball
cricket, the ball is additionally covered with electric tape. The
variation was pioneered in Pakistan and is greatly attributed to
Pakistan's famous production of Fast bowlers as children are brought up
playing the game using a tape ball in which various skills are
developed. The increasing popularity of the tape ball in informal, local
cricket has transformed the way games are played in cricket-loving
nations such as Pakistan, Bangladesh and India.
International structure
ICC
member nations. The (highest level) Test playing nations are shown in
orange; the associate member nations are shown in yellow; the affiliate
member nations are shown in purple.
The International Cricket Council (ICC), which has its headquarters in
Dubai,
is the international governing body of cricket. It was founded as the
Imperial Cricket Conference in 1909 by representatives from England,
Australia and South Africa, renamed the International Cricket Conference
in 1965, and took up its current name in 1989.
The ICC has
104 members: 10 Full Members that play official Test matches, 34 Associate Members, and 60 Affiliate Members.
[41]
The ICC is responsible for the organisation and governance of cricket's
major international tournaments, notably the Cricket World Cup. It also
appoints the umpires and referees that officiate at all sanctioned Test
matches, One Day International and Twenty20 Internationals. Each nation
has a national cricket board which regulates cricket matches played in
its country. The cricket board also selects the national squad and
organises home and away tours for the national team. In the West Indies
these matters are addressed by the
West Indies Cricket Board which consists of members appointed by four national boards and two multi-national boards.
Members
Full Members
Full Members are the governing bodies for cricket in a country or
associated countries. Full Members may also represent a geographical
area. All Full Members have a right to send one representative team to
play official Test matches. Also, all Full Member nations are
automatically qualified to play
ODIs and
Twenty20 Internationals.
[42] West Indies cricket team does not represent one country instead an amalgamation of over 20 countries from the
Caribbean. The English Cricket team represents both England and Wales.
AResigned May 1961, readmitted 10 July 1991.
Top Associate and Affiliate Members
All the associate and affiliate members are not qualified to play
Test Cricket, however
ICC grants
One Day International status to its associate and affiliate members based on their success in the
World Cricket League. The top six teams will be awarded
One day international and
Twenty20 International
status, which will allow the associate and affiliate teams to be
eligible to play the full members and play official ODI cricket.
The associate and affiliate teams who currently hold
ODI and
T20I status:
Statistics
Organized cricket lends itself to
statistics
to a greater degree than many other sports. Each play is discrete and
has a relatively small number of possible outcomes. At the professional
level, statistics for Test cricket, one-day internationals, and
first-class cricket are recorded separately. However, since Test matches
are a form of first-class cricket, a player's first-class statistics
will include his Test match statistics—but not vice versa.
The Guide to Cricketers was a cricket annual edited by
Fred Lillywhite between 1849 and his death in 1866.
Wisden Cricketers' Almanack was founded in
1864 by the English cricketer
John Wisden (1826–1884) as a competitor to
The Guide to Cricketers. Its annual publication has continued uninterrupted to the present day, making it the longest running sports annual in history.
Certain traditional statistics are familiar to most cricket fans. The basic batting statistics include:
- Innings (I): The number of innings in which the batsman actually batted.
- Not outs (NO): The number of times the batsman was not out at the conclusion of an innings they batted in.1
- Runs (R): The number of runs scored.
- Highest Score (HS/Best): The highest score ever made by the batsman.
- Batting Average
(Ave): The total number of runs divided by the total number of innings
in which the batsman was out. Ave = Runs/[I - NO] (also Avge or Avg.)
- Centuries (100): The number of innings in which the batsman scored one hundred runs or more.
- Half-centuries (50): The number of innings in which the batsman
scored fifty to ninety-nine runs (centuries do not count as
half-centuries as well).
- Balls Faced (BF): The total number of balls received, including no balls but not including wides.
- Strike Rate (SR): The number of runs scored per 100 balls faced. (SR = [100 * Runs]/BF)
- Run Rate (RR): Is the number of runs a batsman (or the batting side) scores in an over of six balls.
The basic bowling statistics include:
- Overs (O): The number of overs bowled.
- Balls (B): The number of balls bowled. Overs is more traditional,
but balls is a more useful statistic because the number of balls per
over has varied historically.
- Maiden Overs (M): The number of maiden overs (overs in which the bowler conceded zero runs) bowled.
- Runs (R): The number of runs conceded.
- Wickets (W): The number of wickets taken.
- No balls (Nb): The number of no balls bowled.
- Wides (Wd): The number of wides bowled.
- Bowling Average (Ave): The average number of runs conceded per wicket. (Ave = Runs/W)
- 'Economy Rate (Econ): The average number of runs conceded per over. (Econ = Runs/overs bowled).
In popular culture
Cricket has had a broad impact on popular culture, both in the
Commonwealth of Nations
and elsewhere. Cricket has had an influence on the lexicon of these
nations, especially the English language, with such phrases as "that's
not cricket" (unfair), "had a good innings", "sticky wicket", and
"bowled over". There have been many
cricket films.
The term "Bradmanesque" from Don Bradman's name has become a generic
term for outstanding excellence, both within cricket and in the wider
world.
[44]
The amateur game has also been spread further afield by expatriates
from the Test-playing nations. In the late 19th century, a former
cricket player, English-born
Henry Chadwick of
Brooklyn,
New York, was responsible for the "development of the
box score, tabular standings, the annual baseball guide, the
batting average, and most of the common statistics and tables used to describe baseball".
[45] The statistical record is so central to the game's "historical essence" that Chadwick came to be known as Father Baseball.
[45]
C.L.R. James's Beyond a Boundary is a popular book about the sport.
See also
References
- Notes
- ^ MCC – the official Laws of Cricket. Retrieved on 25 July 2009.
- ^ [1]. Most Popular Sports in the world.
- ^ CricketArchive – full list of ICC member countries. Retrieved on 25 July 2009.
- ^ John Major, More Than A Game, HarperCollins, 2007
- ^ John Leach, From Lads to Lord's
quotes the precise date of the accounting entry as Thursday 10 March
1300 (Julian date), which is in the Gregorian year of 1301. Retrieved on
31 January 2009.
- ^ John Leach, From Lads to Lord's
quotes the precise date of the court case in Guildford as Monday, 17
January 1597 (Julian date), which is in the Gregorian year of 1598.
Retrieved on 31 January 2009.
- ^ Middle Dutch was the language in use in Flanders at the time.
- ^ Birley, p.3
- ^ Birley, op. cit.
- ^ Altham, p.21
- ^ Bowen, p.33
- ^ David Terry, The Seventeenth Century Game of Cricket: A Reconstruction of the Game. Retrieved on 25 July 2009.
- ^ Gillmeister's theory is summarised in the introduction to the book The Language of Cricket by John Eddowes, ISBN 1-85754-270-3.
- ^ David Underdown, Start of Play, Allen Lane, 2000, p.3
- ^ a b H S Altham, A History of Cricket, Volume 1 (to 1914), George Allen & Unwin, 1962, p.21
- ^ Timothy J McCann, Sussex Cricket in the Eighteenth Century, Sussex Record Society, 2004
- ^ CricketArchive profile. Retrieved on 25 July 2009.
- ^ The Australian Eleven: The first Australian team, National Museum of Australia. Retrieved on 24 May 2011.
- ^ CricInfo profile. Retrieved on 25 July 2009.
- ^ MCC – Laws of Cricket: Law 1. Retrieved on 25 July 2009.
- ^ Eastaway, Rob (2004). What Is a Googly?: The Mysteries of Cricket Explained. Great Britain: Robson Works. pp. 24. ISBN 1 86105 629 X.
- ^ "Dimensions for Cricket". Retrieved 2010-02-16.
- ^ a b MCC – Laws of Cricket: Law 19
- ^ MCC – Laws of Cricket: Law 23. Retrieved on 25 July 2009.
- ^ 22 yards is the length of a chain, a surveyor's measure first devised in 1620
- ^ MCC – Laws of Cricket: Law 12. Retrieved on 25 July 2009.
- ^ MCC – Laws of Cricket: Law 30. Retrieved on 25 July 2009.
- ^ MCC – Laws of Cricket: Law 32. Retrieved on 25 July 2009.
- ^ MCC – Laws of Cricket: Law 36. Retrieved on 25 July 2009.
- ^ MCC – Laws of Cricket: Law 38. Retrieved on 25 July 2009.
- ^ MCC – Laws of Cricket: Law 39. Retrieved on 25 July 2009.
- ^ MCC – Laws of Cricket: Law 35. Retrieved on 25 July 2009.
- ^ MCC – Laws of Cricket: Law 34. Retrieved on 25 July 2009.
- ^ MCC – Laws of Cricket: Law 37. Retrieved on 25 July 2009.
- ^ MCC – Laws of Cricket: Law 33. Retrieved on 25 July 2009.
- ^ MCC – Laws of Cricket: Law 31. Retrieved on 25 July 2009.
- ^ MCC—Laws of Cricket: Preamble to the Laws. Accessed 8 September 2010.
- ^ "Zimbabwe revokes Test status". BBC Sport. 2006-01-18. Retrieved 2011-11-06.
- ^ "Zimbabwe beat Bangladesh on return to Test cricket". BBC Sport. 2011-08-08. Retrieved 2011-11-06.
- ^ Eastaway, Rob, What Is a Googly?: The Mysteries of Cricket Explained (Anova, 2005), p. 134.
- ^ CricketArchive: full list of ICC members. Retrieved on 25 July 2009.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p "A brief history ...". Cricinfo. Retrieved 2008-05-02.
- ^ "Cricinfo-Other countries-Teams-Afghanistan". Cricinfo. Retrieved 2008-05-04.
- ^ Singh, Vikas (December 30, 2003). "Ponting in Bradmanesque avatar". The Times of India. Retrieved 8 September 2010.
- ^ a b Tygiel (2000), p. 16.
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